Geranium Oil Nanoemulsion Delivers More Potent and Persistent Fumigant Control of Callosobruchus maculatus in Stored Grain

Plant essential oils offer eco-friendly alternatives to insecticides, though their instability limits effectiveness. This study evaluated the physicochemical stability and fumigant effi- cacy of geranium (Pelargonium graveolens) oil nanoemulsion (GONE) versus bulk geranium oil (GOB) against Callosobruchus maculatus. Geranium oil nanoemulsions (GONEs) were prepared via spontaneous emulsification using 8% oil and varying surfactant levels. The 10% surfactant formulation produced the most uniform...